HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM FIVE – ALL TOPICS

HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM FIVE

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We have:

Notes A and Notes B

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Notes A

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Topic 1 – PRE COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Topic 2 – AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY

Topic 3 – THE PEOPLE OF AFRICAN ORIGIN IN THE NEW WORLD

Topic 4 – FROM COLONIALISM TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1880’S-1914)

Topic 5 – COLONIAL ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SERVICES AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Topic 6 – INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FORCES AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE

Topic 7 – POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

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Notes B

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1. PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES

2. AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY

3. PEOPLE OF AFRICAN ORIGIN INTHE NEW WORLD

4. THE COLONIAL STATE AND AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS UP TO 1914

5. CHANGES IN THE COLONIAL ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SERVICES AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

6. NATIONALISM AND DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA

7. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

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THE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM IN
AFRICA

These are some impacts or effects
of Colonialism in African Continent:

1. European colonial powers did not
plan to industrialize or modernize Africa. Africans
were used to solely produce raw materials, export them to Europe, and then re
-export them Africa as final products, sold at high prices. Africans could not
afford to pay for these products. There were several negatives of colonialism
for the Africans like resource depletion, labor exploitation, unfair taxation,
lack of industrialization, dependence on cash crop economy, prohibition of
trade, the breaking up of traditional African society and values, lack of
political development, and ethnic rivals inside countries.

2. Poor technological base of most of the present day African states, which has been
responsible for their underdevelopment stems from their poor foundation of
education laid by the colonialists. Colonial education essentially aimed at
training clerks, interpreters, produce inspectors, artisans, etc., which would
help them in the exploitation of the Africa’s rich resources. Colonial
education did not aim at industrialization of African territories or at
stimulating technological development within the African environment. Colonial
education brought about distortion and disarticulation in African indigenous
pattern of education which was rooted in African technology. Before fully
embracing colonial education, Africans were good technologists, advancing at
their own rates with the resources within their environment.

For example, Africans were good
sculptors, carvers, cloth weavers, miners, blacksmiths, etc. They were able to
provide and satisfy the technological need of the various African societies.
The introduction of colonial education made Africans to abandon their
indigenous technological skills and education in preference to one which mainly
emphasizes reading and writing. This was the prelude or foundation for the
present poor technological base of African states which has perpetuated their
underdevelopment. As we know, education that is not deeply rooted in a people’s
culture and environment cannot bring about any meaningful technological
advancement. This has aptly been shown in the unsuccessful attempt at the
so-called technological transfer, which is more of a myth than reality.

3. The economic structure of African
society was changed by Europeans. Cash crops were introduced to meet
industrial needs of European countries. Cocoa, coffee, tea, and cotton were the
main cash crops produced on a large scale. Several minerals were mined
extensively. The problem with this was cash crops were focused on instead of
food for basic needs, leading to famine among many Africans. Europeans changed
the economy from a model of producing foods for need to mainly the production
of cash crops. All crops produced by Africans were exported and prices were set
by the colonies. Africans were not allowed to grow these cash crops to benefit
themselves. Trade was prohibited between Africans, so they were forced to
export all cash crops produced and minerals mined.

4. Disarticulation in the type of goods produced by
Africans. The colonialists compelled Africans to
concentrate in the production of goods meant for export. Africans were not
encouraged to produce those goods required by the local population. This made
many Africans to abandon the production of food items required to feed the
teeming and growing population. The effect of this was food shortage and
escalation in food prices. The present day situation where Africans now import
their food is a carry-over from colonialism. The point being stressed here is
that colonialism distorted the satisfaction of local needs in terms of food
production and other requirements in preference to production and satisfaction
of foreign needs especially the industries.

FACTORS FOR
NATIONALISM IN AFRICA

1.   Colonial Oppression

As was pointed out in the last chapter,
colonization was mostly a negative, exploitative, and oppressive experience.
Africans have bad memories of that experience, even though some may appear to
have benefited materially. They were humiliated, their culture denigrated and
distorted, and their land confiscated. European immigrants, who were encouraged
to come to Africa as pioneer farmers and given large tracts of land to farm,
forced Africans to provide cheap labour, which resulted in severe consequences
for African communities. Large plantations were established for growing cash
crops. How could anyone not expect Africans to resent this after a while? In
fact, at the very beginning of colonial occupation, the African resistance took
the form of armed revolt.

2.   Emergence of Bourgeois group

This was the group created by the
colonial system. It includes the civil servant i.e. teachers, wealth people,
traders, businessmen and commercial farmers. This group aimed at taking over
the colonial state in their own ambition and descent wealth from foreigners to
indigenous hand. Generally, the group was reformist rather than revolutionist
as they adopted for superficial changes and not a complete and fundamental
changes.

3. Political Fatigue in Europe

Political fatigue in Europe in the
aftermath of World War II contributed to the rise of nationalism in Africa.
Internal opposition to British imperialism increased due to the losses suffered
by the European powers during the war. The Labour Party and the Fabian
Society urged the British government to take steps to grant independence
to the colonies. The high human and economic costs that Britain, France and
other colonial powers suffered in the Second World War made them more willing
to consider getting rid of the burden of governing overseas colonial
territories. The apparent loss of motivation to continue spending their energy
and resources on external territories quickened the pace of the decolonization
of Africa.

4. The role of Independent African
Church movement

These were the churches formed by
Africans to challenge European church leaders. The movement was not merely, but
also addresses economic, social and political discontent such as land
alienation, forced labour, taxation, involvement of Africans in European wars
and colonial discriminatory policies. The movement laid the foundation.

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COLONIAL ECONOMY AND SOCIAL SERVICES

AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Second World War, also called World War II, conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939–45. The principal belligerents were the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan and the Allies—France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China.

Or, The Second World War was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world’s countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers.

Following the Second World War, colonial governments became increasingly aware that colonial rule could not be maintained forever. They were under pressure to justify why they were keeping African societies under their rule despite the United Nations declaration that all people have the right to self-determination. It made the economy to come to a standstill due to large scale destruction and losses, the productive forces such as factories, financial institutions and trade. All these effects made the African continent under continent to respond through increasing production so as revamp their economies to normal. Thus economic impact of World War Two in Europe had direct impact to the periphery economies.

Socio-economic effects of the Second World War on Europe and how the colonies were made to respond to them

The Second World War had direct and dreadful impacts on Europe than any other place in the world due to the fact that it was fought by European powers and on the European soil.

1. Loss of lives. The Second World War registered a historical death toll. Over 50 million people died in Europe alone leading to great shortage of manpower and sharp decline of production.

For compensation, colonial powers turned to the colonies to serve the great labour part in production. This resulted to excessive labour exploitation in Africa.

• Destruction of property. The World War II had the heaviest infrastructure destructions in the history of the world. Transport, housing, factories, farms, schools and hospital were ruined. As a result there were acute shortage of essential goods and services such as housing, medicine and food staffs. In the colonies, cash crop production campaigns, mineral extractions and labour exploitation were intensified to revive the crumbled European economies.
• Socio-economic miseries. Misfortunes such as acute famine, diseases, unemployment, and general desperation hit Europe due to the war. For quick solution, imperial powers turned to the colonies where Agriculture schemes were introduced to provide raw materials and food to revive industries and feed the hungry Europe. More settlers were also encouraged to move to the colonies to check unemployment and boost cash and food crop production.
• Financial crisis. A lot of state finances were used during the war until imperial powers ran bankrupt. During and after the war, they heavily borrowed from USA to meet war costs and reconstruct their economies. To restructure their economies and refund the loans. colonial masters intensely exploited the colonies to make them shoulder the financial burden of the imperial powers.
• Decline of international trade. The fall in production in Europe and the war blockade affected international trade. To solve the crisis, colonial powers came up with Co- operative and Marketing Boards to enhance cash crop production to boost industry in imperial countries. They also introduced Import Substitution Industries to make profits and check the scarcity of consumer goods like sugar, salt and beverages in the colonies.
• Spread of socialism. The war tarnished capitalism and turned many towards socialism. In the colonies, socialism penetrated by supporting liberation struggles. To strengthen capitalism in the colonies for example the colonial masters introduced Master Farmers to consolidate class divisions among African peasants. Besides, changes were made in school curriculum I to create a class of petty bourgeoisie who would perpetuate capitalist interests after independence.
• Call for decolonisation. The upsurge demands for independence within the colonies and international pressure from Pan-Africanism, UNO and superpowers for the decolonisation contributed to the changes in colonial economies. To accelerate exploitation for economic recovery before decolonisation, colonial powers devised new mechanisms like Agriculture Schemes and mining expansion.

CHANGES IN COLONIAL ECONOMY AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Adjustments were made in colonial economy to respond to the war crisis on the imperial powers. The new plans, strategies and schemes were laid down during and after the war had a sole agenda of effectively exploit the colonies and make them carry the burden of reconstruction of the metropolitan war ravaged economies.

To effect “development” plans and strategies the British came up with the British Colonial Development and Welfare Acts of 1940 and the Overseas Food Corporation in 1948 and the French in 1944 came up with Economic and Social Investment Development Fund (FIDES) to establish funds for socio-economic investment in their colonies. Much of the investment went directly to sectors like agriculture, infrastructure, industry and mining with more attention given to settler colonies like Kenya, Algeria and Southern Rhodesia. Portugal and Belgium had no clear new plans for any significant changes since were least affected by the war.

The colonial Development Plans

The development plans aimed at maximising colonial production and profits that would help metropolitan states recover from war losses. The plans were also to ensure that, colonies meet their own costs of administration at least with very few grants from the metropolitan states.

Examples of the Plans

1. The British Ten – years Development Plan, 1947— 1957

The plan was launched under the provision of the British Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 and 1945. In this plan, the British set strategies for overseeing large production in the colonies for their own benefit. The plan included investment in public health and education fields to ensure an efficient healthy work force and to equip Africans with few skills necessary for improving production. The Act provided credits of 50 million pound for the following 10 years. In total, Britain committed $120 million for the plan.

The aims of the plan

1. To train responsible bureaucracy capable of running ordinary functions of the colonial government.
   1. To produce an economy capable of supporting the colony and of affording a reasonable standard of living.
   1. To improve transport infrastructure so as to tap more raw materials from the colonies.
   1. To educate Africans on the sense of judgment at various issues. Aiming at increasing cash crop production by instilling better farming skills in Africans.
   1. To develop natural resources like water supply, soil conservation, land usage. wild life livestock, fisheries and forestry for easily exploitation of resources.
   1. Improve on public health and life standards with the aim of ensuring an efficient healthy workforce to boost productivity.
   1. To find employment for Europeans who were rendered unemployed due to the war. They were to be employed in different fields like agriculture, industry and administration

2.  The French, like the British also came out with their own Development Plans

1. Ten -year Plan 1942— 52

This made a small (modest) provision for colonies. The major aim of this plan was to protect foreign trade in the French empire by guaranteeing it markets.

b)  The French Ten —year Development Plan, 194 7-1957

In the Brazzaville Conference of 1944 French administrators met to plan for their colonies. They came up with the Economic and Social Investment Development Fund – FIDES (Fonds d’investmentet de development economique et social des territories d’outremer). It was a ten- year plan to be implemented between 1947 and 1957. It was to be financed by the overseas territories investment and development funds. Through FIDES, the French gave loans and grants into their colonies for development of infrastructure, agriculture and industry.

Aims of the Plan

1. To develop transport infrastructure to boost agriculture, trade and industry for the easy tapping of resources from the interior to the coast.
   1. Promote the agricultural sector, so as to improve production of cash crops like coffee and cotton. Agriculture remained the bass of the economy.
   1. Develop small and light industry important in processing raw materials and production of a few consumer goods.
   1. To promote foreign trade in the French empire by guaranteeing it (empire) markets.
   1. To produce an acceptable workforce (labour). In this the colonial practice of forced labour tended to give way to the establishment of a free labour market, in the form of the payment of wages in exchange for labour of the exploited Africans.

Generally, the plans’ main objective was to reconstruct the metropolitan countries by using the resources of the colonies. Therefore the position of the colonies was never meant to change. The colonies remained exporters of raw materials and importers of industrial manufactured goods from the metropolitan Europe.

CHANGES IN COLONIAL AGRICULTURE AFTER SECOND WORLD WAR

Agriculture was made and maintained as the major economic (backbone) of the colonial economy from the start of colonial exploitation, even after the Second World War that situation was upheld. The leading colonial powers majorly involved in the war; British and France introduced a number of policies to improve agricultural productivity in the colonies. The agenda was to exploit the resources in the colonies as much maximum and hastily as possible in order to rehabilitate metropolitan war ravages economies.

Notably, there was increased agriculture commercialisation to stimulate crop production and strongly integrate the colonies into international capitalist system. A number of measures were either introduced or re-emphasised to increase agriculture production.

The changes made;

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES

During and after Second World War, colonial powers established some agriculture development schemes in the colonies. In British colonies the schemes were mostly established under the Overseas Food Corporation. The aim was to maximise agriculture production and profits by stimulating African peasants to adopt better farming methods. Direct colonial directives with local authorities were entrusted to carry out the schemes’ implementation.

Among the several schemes established the following were the major ones in Tanganyika;

1. Crop cultivation schemes. The schemes were introduced to boost production of cash crop and food cops due insufficiency of both raw materials and food staffs in the metropolitan Europe after the war. Notable examples are the Groundnuts Schemes at Kongwa and Nachingwea due shortage of vegetable oils in Europe. Other schemes were for wheat in Mbulu and cotton growing in Sukuma land that required each Sukuma land household to grow an acre of cotton.
2. Land usage and rehabilitation schemes. These were mainly established in hilly areas to control soil erosion. For example the Uluguru Mountain Land Usage and Rehabilitation scheme in Morogoro where terraces were introduced on hill-slops to check on soil erosion. Another one was the Mlalo Rehabilitation Scheme established for rice and cotton growing.
3. Dam construction and irrigation schemes. The dams were to control floods and soil erosion, preserve water for irrigation and help in power generation. Notable examples were Mlalo Basin Irrigation scheme, the Unyanyembe (and Owen fall in Uganda). Darn schemes were for hydroelectricity power generation and irrigation purposes.
4. Destocking schemes. The schemes were introduced in areas were Africans practiced pastoralism like in Masai land, Mbulu and Sukuma land. Africans with large herds had to reduce the number of cattle (mostly by 1/3). The aim was to check soil erosion, retain soil fertility and create large areas and labour for crop cultivation.
5. Resettlement schemes. Resettlement was mostly done in areas with dense population. People were transferred to areas with less population or less productive lands to expand land for cultivation. In Sukuma land for example, about 30,000 natives were moved from the highly populated areas of Mwanza like Kwirnba and Maswa to Geita district between 1947 and 1961 to give more land for cotton growing.
6. Bush Clearing Schemes. Bush clearance was done to control pests and diseases and expand land for agricultural and settlement. It was done in Tsetse fly infested areas to control Sleeping sickness and Nagana diseases. Such diseases affected labour productivity and crop and livestock production. In Mbulu about 600 square miles were cleared for new settlement.

Problems faced before the introduction of the agricultural and settlement schemes

1. Over population; the increasing population pressure on land caused serious land fragmentation which led to soil exhaustion and low peasant production due to limited land.
2. Soil erosion and exhaustion; this was mainly caused by poor land use techniques and land over exploitation. As a result, causing soil infertility and crop failure.
3. Need to resettle Africans under improved agricultural conditions, so as boost crop production and improve their standards of living so as to expand European market.
4. Need to improve stability of peasant cultivation by developing commercial crops. to boost cash crop production so as to produce the needed amount raw material by colonial states.

The British established development schemes in several districts. The examples include; the Usukuma Development scheme for cotton, Mbulu Development Scheme for wheat, Mlalo Rehabilitation Scheme for rice and cotton, the Uluguru Land Usage Scheme for rice and the Nachingwea, Urambo, and Kongwa development schemes for groundnuts cultivation.

Crop cultivation schemes in Tanganyika

1. The Groundnut Schemes

The Groundnuts schemes were established under British Overseas Food Corporation (OFC). The scheme was established to address the acute shortage of Vegetable oils and fats in Britain after Second World War. During the war, Britain depended on importation of these commodities and after the war the commodities were in short supply on international market. In Tanganyika these scheme were opened up in Kon Nachingwea and Urambo.

The key player of the schemes was Frank Samuel, managing director of United African Company (UAC) which was a subsidiary of Unilever a multinational company that was leading supplier of margarine and soap in Western Europe.

Samuel’s plan of groundnuts cultivation was welcomed by the British government which was willing to use any possible means to address the British vegetable oil and fats shortages. The British government immediately dispatched a commission of three experts for feasibility study. After nine weeks in Kenya, Tanganyika and Northern Rhodesia, the commission found Samuel’s proposal sound and advised the government to invest in a scheme for the mechanised production of groundnuts on 3,210,000 acres of land of which 2/3 of it was to be in Tanganyika. The three sites selected in Tanganyika were Nachingwea, Kongwa and Urambo in central Tanganyika along the central railway, and Nachingwea in the southern province.

The plan was approved by the British government in December 1946 and in February 1947 its implementation began. Unfortunately for the British however, the scheme was a failure by 1950’s and was terminated in 1951 after utilising over $ 36 million.

Reasons for the Groundnut scheme

1. To address the problem of shortage of vegetable oils and fats to support the weakened British population due to the war.
   1. To increase food supply to British. There was food insufficiency in Europe after the war. Colonies were made to respond to that by increased food production.
   1. Raw materials. Groundnuts were a wanted fat content raw material needed for manufacturing margarine, soap, vegetable oils and lubricants.
   1. To be added to the existing colonial production system, that is, settler, plantation and peasant production so as to satisfy the metropolitan demands as the result of Second World War.

Effects of the Groundnut Schemes on Tanganyika

Though the scheme was to a greater extent a failure it registered some effects on Tanganyika or in areas where they were opened.

1. Development of transport infrastructure. Transport lines were constructed to access the farms. An attempt was made to construct a railway line linking the Nachingwea to Port of Mikindani to transport groundnuts.
   1. Increase in the number of people in wage employment. A number people, Europeans and Africans were employed in the plantations to provide cheap labour. Others migrated from different regions to the plantation sites.
   1. Improvement of skills. Some skilled and semi-skilled African labourers like machine operators, drivers and in other agriculture fields were trained to work in the schemes.
   1. There was increase in wages and prices of goods and services. This was due increased mobility through labour migration, and shortage of social services like health services.
   1. Food shortage. The increased demand of food by the expanded labour in the projects and heavy reliance on groundnuts other than other food crops resulted to food shortage. Those who depended on food purchases like labourers suffered the more.
   1. Rise of social unrests and dubious behaviours. Habits like alcoholism, prostitution and theft arose around the schemes due inflation of wages and goods. The problem was escalated by migrant labour, urbanisation expanded around schemes’ sites. These included Urambo, Tabora and Nachingwea where labourers and administrators resided for rest and recreation.
   1. Displacement of people. Implementation of the schemes involved resettlement of people to avail expensive land for large scale groundnut cultivation.
   1. Environmental degradation. Bushes and forests were cleared to expand land for large scale groundnut cultivation and infrastructure construction.

a)  Wheat growing scheme

The British government decided to develop wheat growing scheme in the course of the Second World War to help feed a war-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe. The scheme had 50,000 acres (202 square km) on the Ardai plains just outside Arusha; 25,000 acres on Mount Kilimanjaro; and 25,000 acres towards Ngorongoro to the west.

The scheme was put under the operation of Freddie Smith, an American farmer in Tanganyika and David Gordon Hines was the accountant responsible for the finances. All the machinery was borrowed from the USA, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering mangers. Most of the workers were Italian prisoners of war from Somalia and Ethiopia. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.

Reasons for the failure of the schemes

Agriculture schemes introduced in the colonies after the Second World War mostly failed due the following reasons;

1. Insufficient funds. Colonial powers still suffering from the war damages and debt repayment faced shortage of funds to run projects in the colonies. They invested little resources but expected to reap a lot to recover from the war losses. When quick gains were not realised, the projects were immediately called off.
   1. Poor planning. Colonial powers rushed into execution of the schemes with little preparation due to urgency to address the shortage of raw materials and food stuffs in their metropolitan countries. Insufficient research was done and little consideration was puton environment difficulties like droughts in some areas like Kongwa which accounted for the schemes’ failure.
   1. Poor Machinery. There was shortage of machinery in Europe after the World War II. The little machines available were mostly inefficient as they had not been tested in Africa and suffered from problems of recycling since were converted from war tanks hence faced frequent mechanical breakdowns. More so, their maintenance was affected by shortage of spare parts and inexperienced drivers and mechanics.
   1. Poor management and administration. Most officers chosen to take charge of the schemes were unqualified and unskilled. They were mostly ex-soldiers from Europe who did not only lack agricultural skills and but also managerial skills. In some cases they were harsh and so incited African labour resentment.
   1. African resentment and labour difficulties. The scheme mangers faced serious labour problems. Local people did not support the schemes and resented due to the exploitative

and coercive nature of colonial authorities. They were racially abused and received low wages with high taxation and faced land alienation.

• Ecological difficulties. Some sites where the schemes were introduced were not conducive for crop cultivation. For example, Kongwa, Urambo and Nachingwea where the Groundnut schemes were established received inadequate rainfall and had pests and diseases like Rosette that attacked groundnuts and humans. Moreover, some sites had poor soils.

MASTER (PROGRESSIVE) FARMERS

Master farmers were a section of African peasants selected after 1945 by colonial governments in specified areas in the colonies to operate large scale cash and food crop production. They were provided with modem facilities such as tractors, seeds, fertilisers and training to boost production as the need for agricultural products in the metropolitan countries intensified. In initiating Master Farmers, the colonialists believed that Africans were incapable to adopt modern farming without assistance of the whites and that they had limited capital of their own to invest in modem farming to boost production of raw materials and food highly needed in Europe.

Areas where Master farmers were introduced included; Mbulu where about 70 Master Fanners were introduced to cultivate wheat; Urambo to grow tobacco after the failure of the Groundnut scheme; Rungwe for coffee production; Isarni, to grow Maize and in Geita, they cultivated cotton under Mweli Farmers Union which grew in Buchosa chiefdom (in Sengerema).

Objectives of introducing Master farmers

1. To boost agriculture production in the colonies. Master farmers were to work in partnership with settlers and state plantations in large scale cash crop production to increase cash crop production. Also were allowed to grow cash crops which previously were reserved for only white settlers.
2. To consolidate the colonial policy of divide and rule. Master Farmers would strengthen class division and exploitation among Africans peasants who came to be classified into three groups; the Rich farmers (Kulaks) – the Master Farmers; Middle class peasants and; poor peasants who participated in low scale production basing on only their family labour.
3. To help in penetration of capitalist relations in rural areas. By 1945, rural areas were still largely depending on subsistence agriculture and produced only little cash crops. Through Master Farmers, the colonial masters would smoothly entrench commercial farming in rural areas to encourage more cash crop production.
4. To modernise agriculture and make Africans fully participate in the production. The introduction of Master Farmers also looked increasing partition of Africans in the production of the highly needed raw materials and food. This was to be implemented by providing and using modern farming techniques like irrigation and fertilizers.
5. For demonstration. Master Farmers were also to be used as a role model for other Africans learn and imitate better farming methods. Therefore, they were used to encourage more Africans participate in cash crop production. The successes