GEOGRAPHY NOTES FOR FORM FOUR – ALL TOPICS

TOPIC 1 – INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH


TOPIC 2 – CLIMATE AND NATURAL REGIONS


TOPIC 3 – HUMAN POPULATION


TOPIC 4 – SETTLEMENT


TOPIC 5 – ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT

1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

2. CLIMATE AND NATURAL CLIMATE REGIONS

3. HUMAN POPULATION

4. SETTLEMENTS

5. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT

AMAZING GEOGRAPHICAL PLACES IN AFRICA – PART
4

10.
Congo River

Coursing
through the heart of Africa, the Congo is the continent’s second
longest river, after the Nile. It is contained primarily in, or marks the
border of, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The river is
approximately 2,900 miles (4,700 km) long and, with its many tributaries, forms
the largest network of navigable waterways in Africa; this is in spite of the
difficulty in navigating the lower course of the river, which has 32 cataracts
(waterfalls). The Congo River is home to hundreds of species of fish, many of
which are endemic to the river. There are few aquatic mammals in the river, but
various types of reptiles, such as crocodiles, semiaquatic tortoises, and water
snakes, reside there.

11.
Serengeti National Park

The Serengeti
Plain, located in north-central Tanzania, (Africa) is world renowned as an
ideal location for wildlife and nature photography. Much of the beauty is
attributed to its sweeping vistas and dramatic natural features that extend over
60,000 square kilometers. The Serengeti has more than 2
million herbivores and thousands of predators.
Blue Wildebeests, gazelles, zebras and buffalos are
the animals most commonly found in the region.

A
significant portion of the Serengeti Plain is protected and preserved from the
ravages of modern society in the Serengeti National Park. This park, which
extends for roughly 12,950 square kilometers, contains a diverse selection of
habitats and wildlife. For the sake of comparison, the Serengeti National Park
is approximately the size of Northern Ireland. The Serengeti National Park
is bordered by Lake Victoria in the west, Lake Eyasi in the south,
and the Great Rift Valley to the east.

12.
Sahara Desert

The
Sahara is the world’s largest hot desert and the third largest desert
overall, surpassed only by the cold deserts of Antarctica and the Arctic. It
spans an expansive area of over 9 million square kilometers (approximately
3,500,000 square miles), roughly equivalent to the size of the United States or
China. The Sahara extends across 11 North African countries and covers more
than 30% of the African continent.

Recognized
as one of the world’s hottest deserts and one of the most extreme environments
on Earth, the Sahara has an average annual temperature of about 30°C (86°F),
with some areas experiencing extremes of above 50°C (122°F). The region is
characterized by low rainfall, with half of the Sahara receiving less than one
inch (2.5 cm) of rain annually.

BENEFITS OF PLANTING TREES – PART 4

13.
Our communities

Trees
can bring people together. They can act as a landmark within a neighbourhood
and encourage pride amongst people within that community. Trees and woodland
areas can be used to bring people together for educational purposes. They also
allow for activities such as walking or birdwatching. In addition, they give
children somewhere to play in and feel a sense of adventure.

14.
Soil protection and restoration

Healthy
soil is the foundation for sustainable agriculture and thriving ecosystems.
Reforestation helps protect and restore soil health by preventing erosion and
improving its structure. The extensive root systems of trees bind the soil,
reducing the risk of landslides and soil degradation.

As
trees shed leaves and organic matter, they enrich the soil with nutrients,
promoting fertility and supporting plant growth. Moreover, tree canopies shield
the ground from heavy rainfall and harsh weather.

15.
Property Value & Economic Value

Individual
trees and shrubs have value and contribute to savings, but it is the collective
influence of a well-maintained landscape that makes a real economic impact and
has the greatest effect on property value. Direct economic benefits come from a
savings in energy costs. Cooling costs are reduced in a tree-shaded home, and
heating costs lowered when a tree serves as a windbreak. According to the USDA
Forest Service, “Trees properly placed around buildings can reduce air
conditioning needs by 30% and save 20-50 percent in energy used for heating.”

16.
Natural Air Conditioning

Did
you know that strategically placed trees around your home can significantly cut
air conditioning needs? Not only will this make your wallet thicker, but it
will also reduce carbon dioxide and emissions from power plants. Architects and
environmentalists sat together and came up with the great solution – green
roofs. Green roofs are an amazing way to incorporate vegetation to your
home and provide environmental benefits for your community while saving
money on cooling bills.

……….

How different Geographical Factors Influence Climate

Explain how different geographical factors influence climate

The climate of the world is affected by many different factors. The varying influence of these factors leads to different parts of the Earth experiencing differing climates. The most important natural (geographical) factors that affect environment are as follows;

Latitude

Areas near the equator experience higher temperatures than those farther away. At the poles, energy from the sun reaches the earth’s surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than at the equator. This means the climate is cooler farther from the equator

Likewise, seasonal variation of rainfall is partly influenced by latitude. The equatorial region receives rainfall almost throughout the year. It also experiences high temperatures, with a small daily range, all-year-round. The amount of rainfall drops gradually as you move farther north or south of the equator

Latitude also influences the pressure and wind systems of the world. While the equatorial region experiences low pressure, the polar regions experience high pressure.The occurring of overhead sun at different times of the year in different latitudes is under influence of the latitude and has a big impact on climate. Some areas receive the maximum amount of rainfall when the overhead sun at noon is over the area. This particularly happens in the tropics which receive rains when the sun is vertically overhead at noon over the region

Altitude

The influence of altitude on climate is due to its effect on pressure and temperature. The temperature is low at higher altitudes and high at low altitudes. Generally, the temperature drops by 0.6°C for every 100 m increase in altitude. This means high altitude areas experience low temperatures compared to low altitude areas (if all the other factors affecting temperature remain the same). The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be.Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude at the rate of 10 millibars for every 100 metres increase in height. This happens because as the altitude increases, the air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains all year round

Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low-lying areas because as warm, moist air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing the moisture in it to condense and fall down as rainfall

Ocean currents

Ocean currents transport warm water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. In this way, the ocean currents help regulate the earth’s climate by facilitating heat transfer from warm tropical areas to colder areas near the poles and vice versa. Without currents, land temperatures would be more extreme, very hot at the equator and cold toward the poles, consequently, much less of earth‘s land would be habitable

Ocean currents flowing along the coast, especially if the wind is onshore, tend to modify the climate of the adjacent coastal land. Where the winds are onshore and blow over a cold current, they are cooled before reaching the land and the moisture they contain is condensed and dropped over the sea as rain. By the time the winds reach the land they contain very little moisture and hence cause very little or no rainfall. This explains why coastal areas bordering cold ocean currents have turned into deserts because of receiving very little rains.

Where warm ocean currents are onshore, they bring warmth to the adjacent lands and hence make the coastal land’s temperature higher than normal. These currents often bring the moisture-laden winds which condense to form rainfall on land. This leads to an insular climate along the coast

Distance from the sea

Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool moist air from the sea. This often results in heavy rains along the coast. Places in the interior of the continents are subject to higher temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture in the onshore wind is lost before the wind reaches the centre of the landmass

The influence of continentality is greater in temperate regions due to extremes in temperatures. During summer, cool moist winds blow from the sea to the warm, dry land, bringing about the cooling effect on the land they blow. This makes summer temperatures not as high as expected. During winter, the sea is warmer than the land. Warm onshore winds in winter bring warmth to the land. This makes the winter temperature higher than expected

During winter, onshore winds are cooled as they blow towards the interior of the continent. By the time they reach the interior they are cold enough to cause a cooling effect. This makes the interior experience hotter summers and cooler winters

Regarding rainfall, warm moist onshore winds bring rainfall to the land whereas the coastal areas receive more rainfall than areas in the interior. Thus, coastal areas are wetter than areas farther away.

Coastal areas also tend to have high humidity because of high evaporation of water from the nearby sea. Coastal climates resulting from the influence of the sea are described as insular or maritime or oceanic and are characterized by high rainfall throughout the year. Areas that are disadvantaged because of being far from the sea are said to experience continental climate. They are found in the interior of the continent or in coastal areas where offshore winds prevail

Aspect

Aspect generally refers to the direction to which a mountain slope faces. In the southern hemisphere, the northward-facing slopes always receive plentiful sunlight while the southward facing slopes do not. In contrast, in the southern hemisphere, the northward-facing slopes receive plenty of sunlight while the southward-facing slopes do not

As a result, the southward-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and the northward-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere are warmer while the northward-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and the southward-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere are cooler

Wind and air masses

Prevailing winds are winds that blow consistently in a given direction over a particular region on Earth. Winds are the media of transporting heat or coldness and moisture from one place of the earth to the other. Therefore, the temperature of the land over which the wind blows will be modified according to whether the wind blowing over it is cold or warm. In this case, the climate of a particular region of the Earth will depend on the nature of the prevailing wind that passes over that region

The rain that falls over different places of the Earth results from the moisture carried by winds from the water bodies or thick forests to areas far away from the sources. For example, the rainfall that is received along the coast and interior of Tanzania is mainly brought by the SouthEast Trade winds. The winds carry moisture mainly from the Indian Ocean onto the land where it condenses and falls as rain

The onshore monsoon winds carry a lot of moisture from the sea and are responsible for the heavy monsoon rains that are experienced in India and South-East Asia

Alignment of the coastline

This refers to the position of the coastline in relation to the prevailing winds. Where the onshore winds blow diagonally to the shore, they cause heavy rainfall along the coast. The same case occurs where the coast is aligned in such a way that the onshore winds meet along with it. An example of this case is the coast of Mombasa, where the North-East and SouthEast Trade winds sometimes meet and result in a lot of rain

Where the coastline is aligned in such a way that it is parallel to the path of onshore winds, the winds may drop very little or no rain at all along such a coast. The best example is the Somali coast where both the North-Easterlies and South-Easterlies blow parallel to the coastline in different seasons

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

This is a low-pressure area around the equator. The moist winds meet within this region. Places farther away from this zone experience only one rainy season while places close to the zone experience two seasons of heavy rainfall. This is because the winds converge around this region twice a year.

Forests

Areas covered with forests normally receive high rainfall as compared to those with little or no vegetation. This is because of high rates of evaporation and transpiration, leading to high humidity. Therefore, these areas often, receive high amounts of rainfall and have a modified climate.

Human activities

Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in the earth‘s atmosphere, such as greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from burning fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere.

Humans contribute to change in climate by cutting down trees carelessly. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Therefore, a reduction in trees will increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as less of the gas will be absorbed. Excessive concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes too much heating of the Earth (global warming)

On another hand, human activities that conserve the environment constructively shape the climate. Such activities include afforestation, which turns once barren land into a forested area. Consequently, the climate of the area can be changed from semi-arid to a rainy climate

The impact of climate

Climate has many impacts to human activities. Various economic activities conducted by man in different parts of the world are governed by the type of climate experienced in a particular region. For example, people living in deserts and semi-arid regions do not practice much agriculture because their environment does not favour crop cultivation or animal husbandry. In these regions, however, a very limited agriculture and animals rearing is conducted. The animals kept include camels, goats, sheep, donkeys and other4hardy animals. Only drought resistant crops such as dates are grown in deserts and arid areas.

In tropical and equatorial regions, a lot of agriculture is carried out. The inhabitants of these regions take part in cultivation of crops and keeping of animals. Crops grown include cocoa, banana, horticultural crops and grains. The animals kept in these climatic zones include cattle, pigs, donkeys, horses, poultry and other farmyard animals. Specific types of various economic activities carried out in each climatic region will be discussed in detail in the section below.

…………..

Natural Regions of the World

A natural region is a basic geographic unit distinguished by its common natural geography, geology, and climate features. Climatic characteristics and vegetation type determine the kind of animals found in a particular geographic location. These geographical conditions also influence the type of human activities that can be carried out, including the crops grown and animals kept

Animals found in dense equatorial forests are different from those found in the savannah grassland, polar regions or deserts. For example, animals found in warm climates have short hairs while those found in cool and cold regions have long, thick hairs

Likewise, the vegetation in the equatorial region is tall and dense due to high temperature and rainfall throughout the year while that found in desert and semi-desert regions is short and scanty

Human activities also depend on climatic characteristics, vegetation type and animal species that can thrive in a particular region. For example, crop cultivation and animal husbandry activities are mainly carried in regions with sufficient rainfall. Such areas offer favourable conditions for the growth of crops and pastures as well

Different Types of Natural Regions

Identify different types of natural regions

Equatorial climate

The equatorial region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The natural vegetation comprises of dense, lofty equatorial forests (also known as ―selvasǁ) containing a variety of species. The tall, evergreen trees form a continuous cover at a high level.The equatorial region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The natural vegetation comprises of dense, lofty equatorial forests (also known as ―selvasǁ) containing a variety of species. The tall, evergreen trees form a continuous cover at a high level

The top layer comprises very tall trees 45 metres tall or more and their umbrella-like tops form an almost continuous cover of tree crowns (canopy). Sometimes trees can reach a height of 70100 metres, The middle layer made of trees with heights ranging between 30 and 45 metres, The bottom layer comprising of herbaceous plants and saprophytes whose heights are less than 30 metres. Because little light reaches the ground there is little undergrowth

There are three types of animals found in the equatorial rain forests: Tree dwellers such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and monkeys have long arms that enable them to swing from branch to branch, River dwellers such as hippopotamus and crocodiles, Open-space dwellers such as elephants and other wild animals including zebras, hyenas, lions, leopards, and tigers.

Human settlements are small and scattered. Human activities carried out in the equatorial region include shifting cultivation and plantation agriculture. Crops grown in this region include yams, cassava, maize, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, watermelons, bananas, and groundnuts. Examples of areas where this type of farming is practiced include some parts of West Africa and Asia

In plantation agriculture, crops such as cocoa, rubber, and oil palms are grown on large scale farms. Most rubber plantations are found in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. They are also found in Liberia. Cocoa plantations are found in Brazil and West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast). Oil palms are grown in Nigeria, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Other economic activities undertaken in this region include fishing, hunting, and lumbering

Tropical continental climate

The savanna region is bordered by both the equatorial region and the hot deserts. The grasses are tall and trees are more numerous near the equatorial forest region while towards the desert region the grass is short and poor and there are scattered thorny bushes. The common trees include baobabs, acacias, and gum trees

The animals found in this region are of two types: Herbivores which include wildebeests, giraffes, elephants, buffalos, hippopotamuses, zebras, antelopes and rhinos. Carnivores which include lions, hyenas, leopards, tigers, wild cats, wild dogs, foxes, etc. There are also numerous species of birds, reptiles, and insects.

The major occupations in the region include the following: Agriculture: The major crops grown in this region include maize, millet, groundnuts, beans, onions, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal, rice, and coffee. It also involves keeping animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, poultry, etc.

Fishing: This is practiced in water bodies such as oceans, rivers, lakes, swamps, and ponds. Other activities include mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and tourism. Tourists come from foreign countries to view the wildlife that lives in the vast grassland. Numerous national parks have been established. In Tanzania, for example, there are national parks such as Serengeti, Mikumi, Selous, Tarangire, Ruaha, Saadani, Ngorongoro, Katavi, and Manyara.

Tropical monsoon climate

Because of population pressure, vegetation in the monsoon region has been reduced a great deal. However, there are four types of vegetation in the monsoon region that has been left: Equatorial rain forest: consists of trees such as teak and tropical cedar. Trees grow to a height of about 30 – 35 meters.

Tropical rain forest: trees found here include teak, ironwood, sandalwood, and mangrove. Mixed temperate forest: include deciduous trees such as oak, maple, walnut, and magnolia. Scrub and desert vegetation: consist of deciduous thorny trees such as tamarisk and acacias

Because of population pressure, there are few wild animals left such as tiger, elephants, hyenas, and other small animals. The main human activities carried out in areas experiencing this type of climate include rice growing and livestock husbandry. Apart from rice, the other crops grown are wheat, millet, maize, and sorghum.

Sugarcane, cotton, and jute are important lowland crops grown in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The other crops grown are tea (Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and India) and rubber in Malaysia. Animals kept in this climatic region include pigs, cattle, buffalos, sheep, goats, and poultry. The other occupations include fishing, hunting, and tourism.

Tropical marine climate

Regions with this type of climate are located on the east coasts of regions lying between 10^oN and 25^oN and 10^o S and 25^oS. These areas are under the influence of onshore trade winds. The main areas are the east coasts of Brazil and Malagasy, the lowlands of Central America and the West Indies, the coast of Queensland (Australia) and the southern Islands of the Philippines

It‘s characteristics include:

1. Temperature characteristics are similar to those of the equatorial climate.
2. Hot season temperature is 29^oC and cooler season temperature is 21^oC.
3. Annual temperature range is about 8^oC.
4. Total annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm to 2000 mm depending on the location.
5. Rainfall is both conventional and topographic (brought by onshore trade winds)
6. Maximum rainfall occurs in the hot season.
7. High humidity throughout the year.

This climate can generally be described as hot and humid throughout the year. However, the climate is cooled by the onshore winds blowing almost every day

Tropical desert climate

The tropical desert climate occurs on the western margins of landmasses between latitude 20^o to 30^o north and south of the equator. The climate is experienced in all the major tropical deserts of the world. The hot deserts occupy about one-third of the earth‘s surface. The principal tropical deserts occur on the continents as follows:

1. Africa: Sahara, Kalahari, and Namib Deserts.
2. Asia: the desert of Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Israel, and the desert of India
3. North America: Mohave, Colorado and Mexican Deserts
4. South America: Atacama Desert
5. Australia: Great Australian Desert

The region has the following characteristics;

1. Very little total annual rainfall (less than 120 mm in any one year).
2. Mean monthly temperatures range from 29^oC in the hot season to 10^oC in the cool season
3. In most deserts, daytime temperature can rise to as high as 47^oC or more.
4. Night temperatures can fall to as low as 16^oC in summer and 5^oC in winter
5. Very high diurnal temperature range (due to very hot days and very old nights).
6. The annual temperature range is large. It is about 16^oC.
7. Humidity is always low and therefore evaporation is high.

Warm temperate western margin (Mediterranean type)

This climate is also known as the Mediterranean climate. It occurs between 30^oN and 45^oN and 30^oS and 40^oS on the western sides of the continents. Places experiencing the Mediterranean climate are on the coastal lands around the Mediterranean Sea (the Maghreb, Spain, Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Israel), the western sides of North and South America (central California and central Chile), South Australia (Perth and Adelaide) and South Africa (Cape Province)

Characteristics of this region include:

1. Temperatures range from 21^oC in the summer to 10^oC (or below) in the winter
2. Mean annual temperature is about 15^oC.
3. Annual total rainfall varies from 500 to 900 mm.
4. Hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. This is because westerly winds blow offshore in the summer and onshore in the winter

Warm temperate continental (steppe type)

This type of climate is also known as warm temperate interior region. It occurs in the interior of the continents, between 20^o and 35^o north and south of the equator. The best examples of the areas having this climate are Murray-Darling lowlands of Australia; The high Veldt of South Africa; and the central Paraguay and central Argentina (both in South America); central lowlands of North America (Oklahoma and Texas and in northern Mexico); central European lowlands, and the plains of Manchuria

It has the following characteristics;

1. Temperatures range from 26^oC in the summer to 10^oC in the winter
2. The annual rainfall varies from 380 to 700 mm, depending on the distance from the sea
3. Rainfall is convectional type and falls mainly during spring and early summer

Warm temperate eastern margin (China type)

It occurs in the eastern sides of the continents between latitudes 23^o and 35^o north and south of the equator. The countries having this type of climate are central China, south east USA, southern Brazil, the eastern part of Argentina, South Africa, south Brazil, eastern part of Argentina, South Africa, southern Japan, and south eastern Australia

Climatic characteristics

1. Temperatures are about 26oC in summer and 13oC in the winter.
2. The total annual rainfall varies is about 1000 mm.
3. The rain is convectional and torrential type and it mostly falls in the summer.

Warm temperate desert

This type of climate is also called mid-latitude desert climate. The areas having this type of climate include Nevada and Utah states of North America and Patagonia in South America. It is also found in regions that extend from Turkey, northern Iran, across the Caspian Sea and Aral areas into former USSR. It is also experienced in the Gobi desert of Mongolia

This climate has the following characteristics:

1. High summer temperatures (25^oC to 37^oC).
2. Cold winters with temperatures as low as -7^oC.
3. Diurnal range of temperature is around 35^oC and annual range of temperature around 40^oC.
4. Unreliable and low rainfall because of continentality effect. Mean annual rainfall does not exceed 250 mm and most of it falls late winter and early spring.

Cool temperate western margin (British type)

It occurs on the western sides of the continents between 45^o and 60^o north and south of the equator. Areas with this type of climate include North-West Europe, British Columbia in western Canada, Southern Chile, Tasmania, and the South Island of New Zealand

1. Winter temperatures range between 2^oC and 7^oC, while summer temperatures range from 13^oC to 15^oC
2. The annual temperature range is between 8^oC and 11^oC.
3. Rain falls throughout the year, with maxima in winter.
4. The total annual rainfall is about 760 mm
5. The rain is both conventional and cyclonic in nature

Cool temperate continental (Siberian type)

This type of climate is found extensively in the northern hemisphere. It occurs in the interiors of North America and Eurasia between 35^o and 60^oN

1. Moderately warm summers (18^o) and very cold winters (-19^oC).
2. The annual temperature range is very high (37^oC)
3. Most of the rain falls in the summer.
4. The rain is convectional type and is often accompanied by thunder.
5. The annual precipitation (rain plus snow) ranges from 400 to 500 mm

Cool temperate western margin (Laurentian type)

It occurs on the eastern sides of the continents between 35^oN and 5^oN, and south of 40^oS. It is experienced mainly on the eastern sides of North America and Asia

1. Winter temperatures range from -10^oC to 4^oC.
2. Summer temperatures range from 12^oC to 24^oC.
3. The annual temperature range is large and averages 24^oC.
4. Precipitation (in the form of rain and snow) is distributed throughout the year.
5. Annual precipitation varies between 700 and 1000 mm.
6. Rainfall is both convectional and cyclonic.

Temperate desert

This climate occurs in the interiors of Eurasia and North America, and in Patagonia (South America).

1. Winters are very cold with temperatures often below -7^oC.
2. Summer temperatures vary between 25^oC and 37^oC.
3. Diurnal temperature range is about 35^oC while the annual temperature range is about 40^oC.
4. Precipitation is very low, it averages about 250 mm.
5. Most of the rain falls in late winter and early spring.

Cold temperate western margin

This climate is confined to coastal areas of Scandinavia and Alaska

1. Short, cold summers with temperatures of about 12^oC
2. Long winters with temperatures ranging from -2^oC to 4^oC
3. Annual rainfall is about 750 mm
4. Rain falls in most months except the winter when the snow falls

Cold temperate Continental

This climate occurs between 55^oN and 68^oN in the interior of America and Eurasia.

1. Cold and long winters with temperatures ranging between -34^oC and -45^oC.
2. Warm and short summers with average temperatures up to 21^oC.
3. Annual precipitation is very low, about 380 mm
4. Most of the rainfalls in summer, but in winter, precipitation is in the form of snow.

Cold temperate eastern margin

This climate occurs in the north east pacific of Russia

1. Long, cold winters with an average temperature as low as -20^oC or below.
2. Short, hot summers with an average temperature up to 21^oC or higher.
3. Total annual rainfall varies between 500 and 1000 mm.

Tundra climate

This region occurs in the northern coast of North America, southern coast Greenland and the Arctic coast of Europe and Asia.Characteristics of the region include the following:

1. Very long, cold winters with temperatures ranging between -29^oC and – 40^oC.
2. Short, cool summers with temperatures of about 10^oC.
3. Annual precipitation is 250 mm; some of it falls as snow in winter and as rain in summer

Polar climate

It occurs in the interiors of Iceland, Greenland, and Antarctica. Its characteristics include the following:

1. Temperatures are permanently below 0^oC.
2. Precipitation is in the form of blizzards (now storms).
3. The winters consist of continuous night, and summers of continuous day.

Mountain climate

This type of climate occurs in the main mountain areas of the world. The areas that experience such climates include the East Africa Mountains, the Ethiopian highlands, the mountains and plateaus of central Asia, the Alps of Europe, the Andes of South America, and North America’s Rockies. It is characterized by the following:

1. Pressure and temperature generally decrease with an increase in altitude.
2. Precipitation increases with altitude.
3. In areas around mountains within the tropic, temperatures may range from high at the foot of a mountain to very cold at the peak, e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro.